π-base: Difficulty 7

Difficulty: 7

For proofs that are challenging. There's a good chance the proof isn't mine, and if it is, it certainly took me quite a while.

26

(T2T_2 ∧ Exhaustible by compacts)   ⟹  \implies T4T_4

Added:

Mar 23, 2026

Difficulty:

It suffices to show the space is normal. We first show regularity. Let AA be closed and x∉Ax \notin A. Let KK be a compact nbd of xx. A∩KA \cap K is compact, and T2T_2 spaces separate points from compact sets. So let x∈Ux \in U and A∩K⊆VA \cap K \subseteq V with U∩V=∅U \cap V = \emptyset. Choose W=U∩int(K)W = U \cap \text{int}(K) and W′=V∪(X∖K)W' = V \cup (X \setminus K). Then W∩W′=∅W \cap W' = \emptyset are open with x∈Wx \in W and A⊆W′A \subseteq W'.

From this point, since the space is σ\sigma-compact, it’s possible to use other theorems of π\pi-base to prove normality: click here. It feels a bit like cheating, so we instead provide a more direct approach.

Let AA and BB be closed sets. By regularity, for each x∈Ax \in A, there are nbds x∈Uxx \in U_x and B⊆VxB \subseteq V_x which are disjoint. Thus, Ux‾∩B=∅\cl{U_x} \cap B = \emptyset. If we define Ux\mathcal{U}_x as the nbds of xx with this property, then it’s nonempty and U=⋃x∈XUx\mathcal{U} = \bigcup_{x \in X} \mathcal{U}_x is an open cover of AA. AA is closed and XX is σ\sigma-compact, which clearly implies it is Lindelöf (T122), so AA is Lindelöf and we can extract a countable subcover {Un}\{U_n\}. We can do the exact same to BB, finding a countable open cover {Vn}\{V_n\} such that Vn‾∩A=∅\cl{V_n} \cap A = \emptyset for each nn. We then define

U=⋃n<ω(Un∖⋃k≤nVk‾)V=⋃n<ω(Vn∖⋃k≤nUk‾)U = \bigcup_{n < \omega} \left(U_n \setminus \bigcup_{k \le n} \cl{V_k}\right) \qquad V = \bigcup_{n < \omega} \left(V_n \setminus \bigcup_{k \le n} \cl{U_k}\right)

UU and VV are open by construction. For each x∈Ax \in A, x∈Unx \in U_n for some nn and since Vk‾∩A=∅\cl{V_k} \cap A = \emptyset, we have x∈Ux \in U. So A⊆UA \subseteq U and through a similar argument, B⊆VB \subseteq V. Now we show U∩V=∅U \cap V = \emptyset. Assume x∈U∩Vx \in U \cap V, which means x∈Un∖⋃k≤nVk‾x \in U_n \setminus \bigcup_{k \le n} \cl{V_k} and x∈Vm∖⋃k≤mUk‾x \in V_m \setminus \bigcup_{k \le m} \cl{U_k}. If n≤mn \le m, then x∈Unx \in U_n and x∉Un‾x \notin \cl{U_n} generates a contradiction, and n≥mn \ge m would imply x∈Vmx \in V_m yet x∉Vm‾x \notin \cl{V_m}.

27

(Weakly locally compact ∧ R1R_1)   ⟹  \implies Completely regular

Added:

Apr 1, 2026

Difficulty:

Denote x∼yx \sim y to mean x,yx,y are indistinguishable. Let Y=X/∼Y = X/{\sim} be the Kolmogorov quotient and q:X→Yq : X \to Y the surjective map. Note that it is continuous and an open map, therefore a closed map, as it is surjective. This means two things.

  1. If x∉Ax \notin A with A⊆XA \subseteq X closed, then q(x)∉q(A)q(x) \notin q(A) with q(A)q(A) closed, and a function f:Y→[0,1]f : Y \to [0, 1] separating q(x)q(x) and q(A)q(A) induces a continuous function g:X→[0,1]g : X \to [0, 1] separating xx and AA. This proves YY completely regular   ⟹  X\implies X completely regular.

  2. If x∈V⊆Kx \in V \subseteq K with VV open and KK compact, then q(x)∈q(V)⊆q(K)q(x) \in q(V) \subseteq q(K), where q(V)q(V) is open as qq is open, and q(K)q(K) compact because qq is continuous. So XX weakly locally compact   ⟹  Y\implies Y weakly locally compact.

Since XX is R1R_1, then YY is T2T_2. Joining facts (1) and (2), it suffices to prove (Weakly locally compact ∧ T2T_2)   ⟹  \implies T312T_{3 \frac 1 2}.

We first prove locally compactness. To do that, we’ll prove regularity and then then the result follows from (T246). Let x∉Ax \notin A with AA closed. Let x∈V⊆Kx \in V \subseteq K with VV open and KK compact, by weakly locally compact. Note that T2T_2 spaces separate points from compact sets, so let x∈Ux \in U and A∩K⊆U′A \cap K \subseteq U' with U∩U′=∅U \cap U' = \emptyset. As KK is closed, we see that A⊆U′∪(X∖K)A \subseteq U' \cup (X \setminus K), and (U∩V)∩(U′∪(X∖K))=∅(U \cap V) \cap (U' \cup (X \setminus K)) = \emptyset, which separates xx from AA.

Since YY is locally compact and T2T_2, its one-point compactification Y∗=Y∪{∞}Y^* = Y \cup \{\infty\} is compact T2T_2, which must be T4T_4, since T2T_2 spaces separate compact sets and any closed sets of Y∗Y^* are compact. Normal spaces are completely regular (T37), so Y∗Y^* is completely regular. Let x∈Yx \in Y and A⊆YA \subseteq Y closed. Then AA is also closed in Y∗Y^*, so let f:Y∗→[0,1]f : Y^* \to [0, 1] with f(A)={0}f(A) = \{0\} and f(x)=1f(x) = 1, and f∣Y:Y→[0,1]f|_Y : Y \to [0, 1] is still continuous with the same properties.

223

(Countably compact ∧ Sequential)   ⟹  \implies Sequentially compact

Added:

Mar 20, 2026

Difficulty:

Let (xn)(x_n) be a sequence. By contradiction, suppose it has no converging subsequence and for each k<ωk < \omega, define A[k]=⋃m≥k{xm}‾A[k] = \bigcup_{m \ge k} \cl{\{x_m\}}. We first prove each A[k]A[k] is closed. As the space is sequential, it suffices to take (yn)(y_n) a sequence in A[k]A[k] with yn→yy_n \to y and prove y∈A[k]y \in A[k]. Let Y(m)={n>m : yn∈{xm}‾}Y(m) = \{ n > m \ : \ y_n \in \cl{\{x_m\}}\} for each m≥km \ge k. If some $Y(m) is infinite, we could construct a subsequence (yf(n))(y_{f(n)}) in {xm}‾\cl{\{x_m\}} such that yf(n)→yy_{f(n)} \to y, and so y∈{xm}‾⊆A[k]y \in \cl{\{x_m\}} \subseteq A[k]. Otherwise, each Y(m)Y(m) is finite and infinitely many are nonempty. So let m1m_1 be the least mm for which Y(m)≠∅Y(m) \ne \emptyset and n1∈Y(m1)n_1 \in Y(m_1). Inductively, let mj+1m_{j+1} be the least m>njm > n_j such that Y(m)≠∅Y(m) \ne \emptyset and nj+1∈Y(mj+1)n_{j+1} \in Y(m_{j+1}). Now we’ve chosen subsequences (ynj)(y_{n_j}) and (xmj)(x_{m_j}) such that ynj∈{xmj}‾y_{n_j} \in \cl{\{x_{m_j}\}}. For any VV nbd of yy, there exists some n0n_0 such that ynj∈Vy_{n_j} \in V for j≥n0j \ge n_0. But then VV is a nbd of ynjy_{n_j}, so xmj∈Vx_{m_j} \in V for all j≥n0j \ge n_0. As this holds for all VV, that would imply xnj→yx_{n_j} \to y, a contradiction!

So each A[k]A[k] is closed, and as the space is countably compact, let pp be an accumulation point of (xn)(x_n). Then clearly pp is a limit point of A[k]A[k] for all kk. Now consider the sets X(n)={m>n : p∈{xm}‾}X(n) = \{ m > n \ : \ p \in \cl{\{x_m\}} \}. If X(k)=∅X(k) = \emptyset for some kk, that would imply p∉A[k+1]p \notin A[k+1], which is impossible since p∈A[k+1]‾p \in \cl{A[k+1]} and A[k+1]A[k+1] is closed. So let m1=min⁡X(1)m_1 = \min X(1) and mk+1=min⁡X(mk)m_{k+1} = \min X(m_k). We’ve contructed a sequence (xmk)(x_{m_k}) such that p∈{xmk}‾p \in \cl{\{x_{m_k}\}} for all kk. Then for any VV nbd of pp, xmk∈Vx_{m_k} \in V and that would imply xmk→px_{m_k} \to p.

Source: Sequential space methods, Kremsater

389

(Countably metacompact ∧ Normal)   ⟹  \implies Countably paracompact

Added:

Apr 5, 2026

Difficulty:

We first prove that for every decreasing sequence {Fn}\{F_n\} of closed sets with ⋂n<ωFn=∅\bigcap_{n < \omega} F_n = \emptyset, there exists a sequence {An}\{A_n\} of closed GδG_\delta-sets such that ⋂n<ωAn=∅\bigcap_{n < \omega} A_n = \emptyset and Fn⊆AnF_n \subseteq A_n for all nn. Let {Fn}\{F_n\} be such a sequence. Using Ishikawa’s characterization, there exists a sequence of open sets {Un}\{U_n\} with Fn⊆UnF_n \subseteq U_n and ⋂n<ωUn=∅\bigcap_{n < \omega} U_n = \emptyset. That means Fn∩Fn′=∅F_n \cap F'_n = \emptyset where Fn′=UnCF'_n = U_n^C. By Urysohn’s lemma, let fn:X→[0,1]f_n : X \to [0, 1] with f(Fn)⊆{0}f(F_n) \subseteq \{0\} and f(Fn′)⊆{1}f(F'_n) \subseteq \{1\}. Then define Vnk=fn−1([0,1/k))V_{nk} = f_n^{-1}([0, 1/k)), which proves An=⋂k=1∞Vnk=f−1(0)A_n = \bigcap_{k=1}^\infty V_{nk} = f^{-1}(0) is a closed GδG_\delta-set with Fn⊆AnF_n \subseteq A_n. Now to show {An}\{A_n\} has empty intersection, we just have to show An⊆UnA_n \subseteq U_n for each nn. But x∉Un  ⟹  f(x)=1  ⟹  f(x)≠0  ⟹  x∉Anx \notin U_n \implies f(x) = 1 \implies f(x) \ne 0 \implies x \notin A_n.

Now let {Un}\{U_n\} be a countable open cover. Define Fn=X∖⋃k≤nUnF_n = X \setminus \bigcup_{k \le n} U_n. Then {Fn}\{F_n\} is decreasing and must have empty intersection. Let {An}\{A_n\} be the closed GδG_\delta-sets with empty intersection such that Fn⊆AnF_n \subseteq A_n. Then each Bn=X∖AnB_n = X \setminus A_n is an FσF_\sigma-set, so we write Bn=⋃k<ωFnk′B_n = \bigcup_{k < \omega} F'_{nk}. Note that by the way we constructed the VnkV_{nk} above, we could ensure that Vnk⊇Vn(k+1)‾V_{nk} \supseteq \cl{V_{n(k+1)}}. So here, we can assume {Fnk′}k<ω\{F'_{nk}\}_{k < \omega} is increasing with Fnk′⊆int(Fn(k+1)′)F'_{nk} \subseteq \text{int}(F'_{n(k+1)}). Define Hnk=int(Fnk′)H_{nk} = \text{int}(F'_{nk}). Then Bn=⋃k<ωHnkB_n = \bigcup_{k < \omega} H_{nk} and Fnk′⊆Bn⊆⋃k≤nUnF'_{nk} \subseteq B_n \subseteq \bigcup_{k \le n} U_n.

If we define Vn=Un∖⋃k<nFnk′V_n = U_n \setminus \bigcup_{k < n} F'_{nk}, each VnV_n is open. For each xx, let nn be the first index with x∈Unx \in U_n and so x∉⋃k<nUk  ⟹  x∉Fnk′x \notin \bigcup_{k < n} U_k \implies x \notin F'_{nk} for each k<nk < n, so that x∈Vnx \in V_n, proving {Vn}\{V_n\} is an open refinement of {Un}\{U_n\}. Finally, since ⋂n<ωAn=∅\bigcap_{n < \omega} A_n = \emptyset, there must be some nn with x∉Anx \notin A_n, meaning x∈Fn(k−1)′⊆Hnkx \in F'_{n(k-1)} \subseteq H_{nk} for some kk. Then for i>max⁡{n,k}i > \max \{n, k\}, Hnk⊆Fni′H_{nk} \subseteq F'_{ni} so that Hnk∩Vi=∅H_{nk} \cap V_i = \emptyset. So HnkH_{nk} is a nbd of xx which intersects at most VnV_n with n<in < i, proving it is locally finite.

Source: C. H. Dowker, On Countably Paracompact Spaces, Theorem 2 (d) ⇒ (a)